Dürer in Poland - part IV

Connections with Bavaria

At the end of the 15th century, Bavaria and Sarmatia (generally speaking), were linked by close economic and artistic ties. The most important evidence of these links in Dürer's oeuvre is the drawing in the British Museum, dated 1509 (ink on paper, 26 x 42.2 cm, inv. SL,5218.190). It depicts the Fall of the Rebel Angels, with the kneeling figure of the donor Jost Schilling and his coat of arms. It is a preparatory study for a painting commissioned by Schilling for his chapel in Wissembourg.

Friedrich Schilling, a lay judge in Wissembourg around 1450, is the ancestor of the Schilling family who immigrated to Poland. Four, or perhaps five, of his sons settled in Kraków, including Friedrich (d. 1508) and the youngest, Jost (Just, Jodok, Jodocus) Schilling (after "Geschichte der Deutschen in den Karpathenländern" by Raimund Friedrich Kaind, Part 1, p. 105). Jost received the city rights of Kraków only in 1513, being already of advanced age (homo iam grandevus) and died in the same year. Friedrich, through his connections with relatives and other merchants in the Holy Roman Empire, as well as his marriage to Agnes, daughter of the Kraków merchant and banker Paul Behr, amassed a fortune and acquired a high position among Kraków's burghers. He conducted most of his business in partnership with his brothers: Nicolaus (in 1498, 1502, and 1505) and Jost (in 1505). They invested in lead mining and engaged in a significant trade in this metal, papermaking, and the trade of oxhides, Polish cochineal, and textiles, primarily with the German states. In 1499, Schillings supplied substantial quantities of lead to the royal court. They maintained particularly active trade relations with Nuremberg (in 1491, the Nuremberg merchant Sixtus Wagner owed Friedrich 300 Hungarian guilders) and with the cities of Silesia. 

In 1507, the brothers were ennobled by Emperor Maximilian I (after "Polski słownik biograficzny" Volume 35, p.  477), patron of Albrecht Dürer. In the same year, Jost had an altar erected in the Church of Saint John in Wissembourg, dedicated to Saint Stanislaus, a highly venerated patron saint of Poland. This altar has since disappeared, as the church became Protestant over time. Consequently, an effigy of Jost very similar to the one in the drawing, bearing his coat of arms, the inscription IOST SCHILLING and the date A° 1507, can be attributed to the circle of Dürer (oil on panel, 41.5 x 28.6 cm, Lempertz in Cologne, November 17, 2007, Auction 909, lot 1143 and Lost Art-ID573856). However, the depiction of the hands suggests more the circle of Lucas Cranach the Elder, as in the case of the portrait of the wife of Erazm Schilling (d. 1561), copied by Franz Wolfgang Rohrich (Galeria Staszica in Poznań, December 15, 2022, lot 3).

In 1536, a painter from Bavaria, Andreas Jungholz, accepted the Kraków municipal law (Andris Jungholcz ex Bauaria de Monte-sancto [Heiligenberg bei Schönau?], pictor, after "Skarbniczka naszej archeologji ..." by Ambroży Grabowski, p. 42). He worked on the decoration of Wawel Castle and is considered to be perhaps the same painter as Andreas, who received 30 florins on December 3, 1546, for a portrait of King Sigismund I.

In addition to economic and artistic connections, political connections also became important during Dürer's youth in Nuremberg. On November 14, 1475, Hedwig Jagiellon (1457-1502), the eldest daughter of King Casimir IV Jagiellon and Elizabeth of Austria, married Duke George the Rich in Landshut (near the Free Imperial City of Nuremberg). Several works of art commemorate the Duchess of Bavaria-Landshut. Among the most important is the large tapestry housed in the Bavarian National Museum in Munich (wool and silk, 442 x 588 cm, inv. T 3861). Made in 1540, as evidenced by the date inscribed at the bottom, this tapestry depicts Sophia's family tree. It comes from Neuburg Castle and belongs to a series of tapestries commissioned by Otto Henry (1502-1559), Count Palatine of Neuburg, Hedwig's grandson. The design is attributed to the Neuburg court painter, Peter Gertner, and the tapestry was woven in Otto Henry's workshop in Neuburg under the direction of the Flemish weaver Christian de Roy. The lower part of the tapestry depicts Sophia with her coat of arms (the White Eagle), an image likely based on pictures made during her lifetime, more than fifty years earlier. In 1536, Otto Henry traveled to Kraków to claim his grandmother's dowry, and the view of the Polish capital painted after this visit is attributed to his other court painter, Matthias Gerung.

Around 1535, shortly before Otto Henry's visit to Kraków, Barthel Beham (1502-1540), a Nuremberg painter whose work shows strong influences from Dürer, created the "small Wittelsbach series", which included, in addition to members of the family, several portraits of contemporary monarchs. This series is considered a gift from Duke William IV of Bavaria (1493-1550), for whom Beham had worked as court painter since 1527, to his cousin Otto Henry, and was later kept at Neuburg Castle, the latter's residence. The series includes two portraits of Emperor Charles V (Bavarian State Painting Collections, inv. 2611 and inv. 2558), a portrait of his brother Ferdinand I (Bavarian National Museum, inv. R44), a portrait of William IV (Berchtesgaden Castle, inv. BI a52), Otto Henry, dated top right: 1535 (Alte Pinakothek, inv. 5316), as well as William IV's brother - Louis X of Bavaria (1495-1545), dated top left: 1535 (Sotheby's London, July 6, 2016, lot 27), for whom another series was probably made. Also part of the "small Wittelsbach series" is a portrait of the young Louis II Jagiellon (1506-1526), ​​King of Hungary, Croatia, and Bohemia from 1516, nephew of Sigismund I (oil on panel, 42.5 x 33.5 cm, Lempertz in Cologne, sale 1266, May 17, 2025, lot 1004). Like the portraits of Charles V and Ferdinand I, it was probably modeled on other images of the monarch. The portrait comes from the collection of the Royal Bavarian Order of Knights of the House of Saint George, and the barely visible inscription at the top confirms the identity of the portrayed ([...] ANNONIAE LVDVIGVS / REXQVE PATER:QVI / PRO PATRIA PVGNANS / FORTITER OPPERVIT / LVDW / IG).

After the death of Louis II, Duke Louis X of Bavaria, who reigned in Landshut, claimed the Bohemian crown and opposed the Habsburgs until 1534, when the two dukes of Bavaria concluded an agreement with Ferdinand I in Linz. Since the portrait of the Jagiellonian monarch was painted after this agreement, it should not be linked to these claims, but rather to the family ties of Otto Henry (and his cousin, the ruler of Landshut).

This suggests that portraits of other members of the Jagiellonian family, including that of Otto Hery's grandmother's brother, Sigismund I, whom he visited shortly after the completion of the "small Wittelsbach series", were also executed. In this context, the series of portraits painted in the 1660s by the Swedish painter David Frumerie (1641-1677) is particularly interesting. He copied the paintings from a Swedish royal collection, likely looted by Swedish troops in the 17th century, or painted by Jakob Binck (d. 1569) and subsequently lost. Binck is considered a pupil of Dürer and frequently copied the works of Barthel Beham and his brother Hans Sebald Beham. Furthermore, he worked for Duke Albert of Prussia (1490-1568), son of Sophia Jagiellon (1464-1512), and his Sarmatian relatives.

The series by Frumerie includes portraits of male rulers from various European countries around 1540 and earlier. While the portraits of the Dukes of Saxony were originally inspired by the works of Cranach the Elder, those of Emperors Charles V and Ferdinand I resemble Beham's works from the Wittelsbach series (Nationalmuseum in Stockholm, inv. NMGrh 599, NMGrh 598). The portrait of William IV of Bavaria (inv. NMGrh 585) is also based on corresponding works by Beham (Alte Pinakothek, inv. 2456). The series also includes the portrait of Louis II Jagiellon (oil on canvas, 197 x 119 cm, inv. NMGrh 596, inscription: LVDOVICVS REX HVNGARIÆ / ET BOHEMIÆ. ÆTATIS.20. / ANNO.1525.), similar to that from the "small Wittelsbach series" and to the full-length portrait from Neuburg Castle (Alte Pinakothek, inv. 6946).

Among the paintings copied by Frumerie is also the portrait of Louis's uncle, Sigismund I (oil on canvas, 194 x 98 cm, inv. NMGrh 570, inscription: SİGİSMVND, D. G. REX / POLONİÆ MAGN, DVX / LITVAVIA.RUSSIÆ PRVS/SIÆ DOMIN, ...). The colors and style of this work are reminiscent of the paintings of Beham, whose workshop also produced full-length portraits, such as those of Otto Henry and his wife Susanna, both from Neuburg Castle (Alte Pinakothek, inv. 4229 and inv. 6724). The King of Poland holds an apple, a symbol of original sin, as does Cunigunde of Austria (1465-1520) in her posthumous portrait painted by Beham in 1531 (Alte Pinakothek, inv. 2445, signed and dated upper left: 1531. / .BB). 

Like the portrait of Cunigunde, which has a counterpart in that of her husband Albert IV of Bavaria-Munich (1447-1508), painted in 1535, many years after the duke's death (Neuburg State Gallery, inv. 2444, signed and dated upper left: .1535. / .BB), the portrait of Sigismund I, created by Beham, was undoubtedly created together with the portrait of his wife, Bona Maria Sforza d'Aragona. No such portrait of the latter is known, however, the image of a lady in Italian costume from Beham's painting is interesting in this respect. This horizontal composition was painted in 1530, as evidenced by the inscription in the lower left part of the painting: 1530 / BARTHOLOME BEHEM and depicts the religious scene of the Finding of the Cross by Saint Helena (Alte Pinakothek, oil on panel, 101.1 x 149.8 cm, inv. 684). The painting comes from the Ducal Art Chamber in Munich and is part of the Historical Cycle (Historienzyklus), a series of paintings commissioned by William IV of Bavaria and his wife, Maria Jakobaea of Baden-Sponheim (1507-1580), depicting famous ancient battles and the virtuous deeds of legendary women. The compositions in the cycle feature the coats of arms of the Duke and Duchess, including the scene of the Finding of the Cross - inscription next to the Baden coat of arms: CRVX CHRISTI AB HELENA REPERITVR / A MACARIO MORTVA SVSCITATA ADPROBATVR AN CCXLIII. Several of these scenes depict recent events disguised as ancient ones. The Siege of Alesia by Julius Caesar and the Battle against Vercingetorix, for example, painted by Melchior Feselen in 1533 (Alte Pinakothek, inv. 686), feature the German imperial double-headed eagle on the standards of the assembled Roman troops, while the French fleur-de-lis appears on the flags of the defeated Gauls, among whom are also Ottomans.

The Discovery of the Cross, undoubtedly inspired by the Duchess of Bavaria-Munich, is universally regarded as containing the portrait of Maria Jakobaea in the guise of Saint Helena, who discovered in Jerusalem the cross on which Christ was crucified (after "Senfls Liedsätze ..." by Sonja Tröster, p. 251). It is also considered a reflection of the Wittelsbach family's Pietas Bavariae, particularly through a veneration of the True Cross (after "Engendering Pietas Austriaca ..." by Ilaria Hoppe, p.  195). The other figures in this scene are also portraits of important figures of the period.

Saint Macarius, Bishop of Jerusalem, bears a striking resemblance to depictions of Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg (1490-1545), Archbishop of Mainz and Archbishop of Magdeburg, such as Dürer's 1523 engraving or the portrait as Saint Martin painted by Simon Franck in 1543 (Cathedral and Diocesan Museum in Mainz, inv. M06065). The first lady in the group of women behind Saint Helena (Maria Jakobaea), wearing headdresses characteristic of the late Middle Ages, is undoubtedly Cunigunde of Austria, resembling her portrait dating from around 1485 (Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection, inv. 8 (1964.15)). The lady holding a book, dressed in English attire, is Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536), the Catholic Queen of England, depicted in similar dress in the portrait held at Lambeth Palace (inv. NPG L246). The lady in the green dress on the left is probably Eleonora of Austria (1498-1558), Queen of Portugal between 1518 and 1521 and Queen of France from 1530 to 1547, while the lady with a large headdress on her head and a gold necklace around her neck is probably Anna Jagellonica (1503-1547), Queen of Germany, Bohemia and Hungary.

The woman in the pink dress and with the Italian-style hairstyle is very reminiscent of the images of Queen Bona Sforza by Giovanni Cariani and Bernardino Licinio, which I have identified. The Queen of Poland, Grand Duchess of Lithuania, Lady of Ruthenia, and Duchess of Bari, is kneeling beside her distant relative, Catherine of Aragon. They are united by their shared, now largely forgotten, Hispano-Aragonese heritage and by their veneration of the True Cross.

Already a princess in the Kingdom of Naples, Bona became the main character in an anonymous sentimental novel in Spanish, printed in Valencia in 1513 under the title "Question of Love" (Cuestión de amor). The story recounts the chivalrous love of Flamiano (Jeroni de Fenollet i de Centelles), a Valencian nobleman living in Naples, with Belisana (Bona) (after "Cuestion de amor ..." by Françoise Vigier, p. 25-26, 132). She was also praised in poems in Spanish, such as the one published in Toledo in 1527 in the Cancionero general (after "Bona Sforza" by Adam Darowski, p. 18, 45-46, 50). Bona's daughters adopted the traditional Spanish title of Infanta. Probably as early as the 1520s, Antonio Niccolò Carmignano addressed the poem Alla Serenissima Infante di Polonia to Bona's eldest daughter, Isabella Jagiellon (1519-1559), and in another poem compares her to Queen Isabella I of Castile. He also uses the Spanish title of Infante to refer to Bona's son Sigismund Augustus in the poem entitled Allo infante serenissimo re jovene, written around 1530.

Although the scene itself is clearly inspired by Italian compositions, such as those of the Venetian painter Vittore Carpaccio (e.g. the Sermon of Saint Stephen, dating from around 1514 and preserved in the Louvre), the technique and colors are close to those of Dürer. The origin of these inspirations remains uncertain, as, according to confirmed information, the artist visited Italy in 1540, where he died in Bologna. In 1529, he painted a full-length portrait of the two-year-old son of Anna Jagiellonica, Archduke Maximilian of Austria (1527-1576). It is therefore probable that he visited Vienna or Prague, or that he was inspired by other effigies (Liechtenstein Collections, inv. GE 950). In 1534 he had made a copy of a version of Titian's composition - Young lady at her toilet, considered a portrait of Laura Dianti or Isabella Boschetti (Kunstsammlungen und Museen Augsburg, inv. L 841).

It is also worth mentioning here a "Portrait of a princely lady" (Bildnis einer fürstlichen Dame) by Beham, which I had already considered in 2016 as a possible likeness of Bona. This painting, presumably belonging to the "small Wittelsbach series", was in the Bavarian National Museum before the Second World War, alongside a similar portrait of Susanna of Bavaria, probably from the same series. It likely comes from Schleissheim Palace, near Munich (Marburg Photographic Archive, image no. 110.586). Although comparable to Beham's portraits of Maria Jakobaea, which are of a similar size, the facial features and costume differ from known portraits of the Duchess of Bavaria-Munich, as well as from those of Susanna. The facial features, however, correspond to those of the Queen of Poland, as seen in her later portraits.

An important clue for establishing Barthel's connections to the royal court in Sarmatia might be the figure of Hans Behem (ca. 1480-1533), also known as Beheim or Beham, a Nuremberg bell and cannon founder who served the royal court in Kraków. He settled in Poland around 1518 and, in 1520, served as master cannon founder during the Polish-Teutonic War. That same year, he was commissioned to cast the Sigismund Bell for Wawel Cathedral, founded by the monarch; it bears a German inscription - HANS BEHAM VON NVREMBERG - interspersed with his craftsman's mark, as well as a similar Latin inscription - IOANNES BOHEMVS DE NVREMBERGENSIS - on the opposite side. These large inscriptions, positioned beneath depictions of Saint Sigismund (the king's patron saint) and Saint Stanislaus (the kingdom's patron saint), accompanied by the royal coat of arms, attest to the high status enjoyed by this Nuremberg master in Poland, as well as to the great tolerance of the era.

The Latin version of his name, Joannes Bohemus (literally "John of Bohemia"), indicate that the family originated in Bohemia, a hypothesis also mentioned in scholarly literature. This surname further suggests that Hans was likely related to Barthel and his brother Hans Sebald, although the exact nature of these family ties remains unknown (compare "Sebald und Barthel Beham, zwei Maler der deutschen Renaissance" by Adolf Rosenberg p. 3). Hans's father, Hans Beheim the Elder (ca. 1460-1538), was an architect, appointed master builder of the city of Nuremberg for life in 1503. His portrait was painted by the Venetian artist Jacopo de' Barbari, whose work and style influenced those of Albrecht Dürer and Hans von Kulmbach.

At least one important work by Dürer was also located in Pomerania in the 16th century. The 1560 inventory of Wolgast Castle lists the portrait of Amalia of the Palatinate (1490-1524), painted by Dürer (Freulein Amalia, Pfalzgrevin am Rein, Herzog Georgens Gemhal, Dureri Contrafen und arbeit, item 3, after "Neue Beitrage zur Geschichte der Kunst und ihrer Denkmäler in Pommern" by Julius Mueller, p. 31). The castle was the residence of Philip I of Pomerania (1515-1560), Duke of Pomerania-Wolgast, grandson of Anna Jagiellon (1476-1503), sister of Sigismund I, on his father's side. Amalia was the mother of the duke and her portrait was probably made shortly before her marriage to George I of Pomerania (1493-1531) on May 22, 1513 in Szczecin. The inventory description suggests it might be an engagement portrait, as Amalia is referred to as Freulein, a traditional German title of respect for a young girl or unmarried woman. Consequently, the drawing of her holding a flower, taken from the Pomeranian "Book of Effigies" (Visierungsbuch), lost during World War II, was considered to be the work after Dürer (after "Die Bildnisse des pommerschen Herzogshauses" by Hellmuth Bethe, p. 6, image 3). However, it should also be noted that many other drawings in this collection were likely preparatory studies returned with the finished portrait. It is therefore probable that it was executed after Amalia's marriage by a member of Dürer's workshop sent to Pomerania. Dürer's original painting was likely destroyed in the 17th century.

These two images were certainly not the only representations of the Duchess of Pomerania. Dürer and his workshop likely also produced copies for Amalia's relatives. This is evidenced by the version of her portrait based on the aforementioned drawing, now housed at Gripsholm Castle in Sweden (oil on canvas, 56 x 46 cm, inv. NMGrh 1112). The painting was probably executed by David Frumerie. It is believed to be an image of Beatrice of Baden (1492-1535), Countess Palatine of Simmern, while the actual portrait of Beatrice copied by Frumerie is believed to depict Anne of Foix (1484-1506), Queen of Bohemia, Croatia and Hungary, and third wife of King Vladislaus II Jagiellon (Nationalmuseum Stockholm, inv. NMGrh 303).

Duchess Amalia was the daughter of Margaret of Bavaria-Landshut (1456-1501) and it is likely that family ties had an impact on the choice of painter. Although the Wittelsbachs are not generally considered major patrons of Dürer, Nuremberg's proximity to their estates suggests that their interactions were more frequent than the surviving works and documents indicate. The most valuable remnant of these contracts is a drawing with a portrait of Susanna of Bavaria (1502-1543), daughter of Albert IV and Cunigunde of Austria, and wife of Otto Henry. This drawing, dated 1525 (in the upper right), is probably a preparatory study for a painted portrait (Harvard Art Museums, chalk on paper, 40.3 x 29.4 cm, inv. 1949.1). Before marrying Otto Henry in 1529, Susanna was the wife of Casimir (1481-1527), Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, nephew of King Sigismund I and son of Sophia Jagiellon. Casimir's portrait was painted by Hans von Kulmbach, Dürer's pupil, in 1511 (Alte Pinakothek, inv. 9482).

​Portrait of Jost Schilling (d. 1513) by circle of Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1507 or after, Private collection. 

​The Fall of the Rebel Angels with portrait of Jost Schilling (d. 1513) as donor by Albrecht Dürer, 1509, British Museum. 

​Tapestry depicting the family tree of Hedwig Jagiellon (1457-1502), Duchess of Bavaria-Landshut by Christian de Roy after design by Peter Gertner, 1540, Bavarian National Museum in Munich. 

​Portrait of ​​King Louis II Jagiellon (1506-1526) by workshop of Barthel Beham, ca. 1535, Private collection.

​Portrait of ​​King Louis II Jagiellon (1506-1526) by David Frumerie, 1660s, Nationalmuseum in Stockholm.

​Portrait of ​​King Sigismund I (1467-1548) by David Frumerie, 1660s, Nationalmuseum in Stockholm.

​Hypothetical reconstruction of the portrait of ​​King Sigismund I (1467-1548) by Barthel Beham, ca. 1530, lost. © Marcin Latka

​Hypothetical reconstruction of the portrait of ​​Queen Bona Maria Sforza d'Aragona (1494-1557) by Barthel Beham, ca. 1530, lost. © Marcin Latka

​Finding of the Cross with portraits of Queen Bona Maria Sforza d'Aragona (1494-1557), Queen Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536), Duchess Cunigunde of Austria (1465-1520), Duchess Maria Jakobaea of Baden-Sponheim (1507-1580) as Saint Helena and Cardinal Albert of Brandenburg (1490-1545) as Saint Macarius by Barthel Beham, 1530, Alte Pinakothek in Munich.

​Portrait of a lady, perhaps ​​Queen Bona Maria Sforza d'Aragona (1494-1557) by Barthel Beham, ca. 1535, Bavarian National Museum in Munich, lost.  

​​Study drawing for portrait of Amalia of the Palatinate (1490-1524), Duchess of Pomerania, from the "Book of Effigies" by circle of Albrecht Dürer, ca. 1513, Pomeranian State Museum in Szczecin, lost during World War II. Virtual reconstruction, © Marcin Latka

​Portrait of Amalia of the Palatinate (1490-1524), Duchess of Pomerania by David Frumerie (?), 1660s, Nationalmuseum in Stockholm.

​​Study drawing for portrait of Susanna of Bavaria (1502-1543) by Albrecht Dürer, 1525, Harvard Art Museums.