Metamorphoses of Krzysztof Kobylieński

In 1558, in Kraków, the nobleman Krzysztof Kobylieński (Kobylański, Kobyleński, Kobyliński, ca. 1520-1565), published a work titled Christophori Kobilienski, eqvitis Poloni, Variorvm epigrammatvm ad Stanislavm Rozimontanvm libellvs (Jagiellonian Library, BJ St. Dr. Cim. 4417). Beyond its literary merit, this collection of Latin epigrams also contains an invaluable assemblage of period woodcuts and offers a precious glimpse into the artistic culture of 16th-century Sarmatia.

Krzysztof was a descendant of Queen Elizabeth of Pilica (d. 1420), also known as Elżbieta Granowska, the third wife of Jogaila. He was likely a Calvinist and pursued his theological studies abroad - almost certainly in Wittenberg, given that he mentions Philipp Melanchthon in one of his poems (Dixerat hæc quôda doctus mihi forte Melacthon), as well as in Italy (after "Nieznane portrety Zygmunta Starego" by Józef Muczkowski, p. 129). He was probably the courtier at the court of Hetman Jan Amor Tarnowski (1488-1561), and the work contains several references to the latter.

It was likely during his studies abroad that he became acquainted with the works of Erasmus of Rotterdam (d. 1536) and acquired a woodblock depicting the philosopher in profile; this image is considered to be based on a portrait drawn from life by Hans Holbein and cut into wood, presumably by Hans Lützelburger (d. 1526). Erasmus's likeness appears twice in Kobylieński's work. The other woodcuts were likely acquired in Poland or commissioned by the author. Among them are four prints by Hans Baldung Grien (attributed by me), including one depicting Saint Stanislaus, a copy of Hans Springinklee's David and Bathsheba (the original was created around 1518), portraits of King Sigismund I and his son Sigismund II Augustus, as well as prints featuring the coats of arms of the author (Grzymała) and his mother (Leliwa), the arms of Hetman Tarnowski (dated 1557), and those of Andrzej Zebrzydowski (1496-1560), Bishop of Kraków. The epigram dedicated to Zebrzydowski praises the wisdom of this Catholic bishop. In two other poems, the Protestant author pays tribute to two further Catholic bishops: Samuel Maciejowski (1499-1550) and Jan Lubrański (1456-1520). He also devotes a poem to the Latin poet Klemens Janicki (1516-1543), whom Italy honored with a laurel (IN TVMVLVM CLEMENTIS IANICII QVEM ITALIA LAVREA HONORAVERAT).

In the poem AD HIERONYMVM MASAM VENETVM IN LIBELLVM ANDREÆ ZEBRIDOVII EPISCOPI CRACOVIEN., he addresses Girolamo Masa of Venice regarding the booklet of Bishop Andrzej Zebrzydowski. In AD QVENDAM ITALVM, he addresses a certain Italian man released from prison, and in DE CAEDIBVS EIVS TEMPESTATIS PRINCIPVM IN ANGLIA, he laments the death of the Protestant Lady Jane Grey (d. 1554), Queen of England - described as a "young woman distinguished by her birth, renown, and learning" - which suggests that he likely stayed in England around the time of her death, which occurred in February 1554.

In several other poems, the author refers to portraits and paintings. In the poem titled "On the deceptive portraits in a certain citadel" (DE FALSIS IMAGINIBVS IN ARCE QVADAM), he criticizes the inaccuracy of painters who produced flawed or reality-distorting portraits of King Sigismund I and Bona Sforza, of their children Sigismund Augustus and Isabella Jagiellon (Fallaci picta es tuque ISABELLA manu), and of Prince Louis Jagiellon. Kobylieński maintains that "since the face is considered a reflection of the spirit, a poor painting misrepresents its true nature", adding: "Yet, few are the faces whose portraits capture their true beauty with accuracy". Interestingly, on the next page, we see a full-size portrait of King Sigismund Augustus wearing the crown jewels, accompanied by the poem "On the likeness of Julius Caesar" (IN EFFIGIEM IVLII CÆSARIS), which reads: "Here you are truly depicted, bravest Julius Caesar" (Pingeris hicce mere Caesar fortissime Iuli). 

In the poem titled "On the portrait of Emperor Charles V, owned by Count Jan of Tarnów, Castellan of Kraków, rendered true to life" (IN IMAGINEM CAROLI V. CÆSARIS APVD IOANNEM COMITEM A TARNOW CASTEL: CRAC: Ad uiuum expressam), the poet describes the painting belonging to Hetman Tarnowski, most likely executed by Titian or Lambert Sustris "with the artistry of an Apelles". This text is followed by a poem dedicated to the portrait of Hetman Tarnowski (IN IMAGINEM IOANNIS COMITIS A TARNOW CASTELLANI CRACOVIENSIS). Two other paintings described by Kobylieński may also have belonged to the Hetman: one depicting the death of King Louis II Jagiellon (1506-1526) at the Battle of Mohács in 1526 (IN HISTORIAM LVDOVICI REGIS CÆSI DEPICTAM), and the other showing Saint Paul caught up to the third heaven (IN IMAGINEM RAPTI PAVLI). The author also praises the beauty of a silk tapestry from Tarnowski's collection depicting Orpheus playing the lyre, which was most likely produced in Brussels workshops (IN IMAGINEM ORPHOEI APVD IOANNEM A TARNOW Sericea tapeta intexti). 

The work also contains a fable (fabellam) titled METAMORPHOSEOS PVELLAE ET PARVVLI (Kobylieński's work)​, a tale about the metamorphoses of a girl and a boy, inspired by Ovid's Metamorphoses. The woodcut illustrating this tale, likely created in Kraków, depicts the naked girl in a river alongside a ram. A reference to Ovid also appears in the book's preface, where Kobylieński addresses his friend Stanislaus Rosimontanus - identified as Stanisław Różanka (ca. 1520-1572), a Calvinist and physician at the Tarnowski court, educated in Padua between 1553 and 1556, complaining about having received no news from him since his departure from Kraków for Ruthenia.

References to Ovid and his Metamorphoses shed light on why a woodcut, similar to the one illustrating the fable, was placed almost at the beginning of the book, right after the preface. It depicts the mythological musical contest between Apollo, god of music and poetry, and Pan, god of wild nature and rustic music (In Imaginem Apollinis cum Panisco decertantis). The figure of Apollo, shown on the right playing the lute with highly realistic features, serves in this context as a mythological "metamorphosis" of Kobylieński, while the satyrs on the left embody his critics, who are also the targets of the phrase inscribed to the right of the image: "Against incompetent critics" (Contra inoptos æstimatores). 

Given the Venetian works associated with Hetman Tarnowski (his funerary monument and the paintings I have identified), as well as the author's training in Italy, the painting containing his disguised portrait was likely executed in Venice. The composition of the woodcut evokes Titian's Jupiter and Antiope, also known as the Venus of Pardo (Louvre Museum in Paris; INV 752; MR 521), a work the master likely sent around 1552 to Prince Philip of Spain (the future Philip II). The upper section of the composition features a squirrel on the tree, echoing Titian's painting Venus and Cupid, known from a print made by Niccolò Boldrini in 1566. A squirrel also appears in portraits of Barbara Radziwill by Paris Bordone, identified by me, although, in the case of the Kobylieński portrait, it likely carries a different meaning, perhaps related to cunning. Krzysztof clearly sympathized with Sigismund Augustus's second wife, given that he included the epigram about her tombstone in the book (IN TVMVLVM REGINAE OLIM POLONIÆ BARBARÆ). 

Further, in this context, the tapestry from the Tarnowski collection undoubtedly held symbolic significance as well: art and intellect can tame primal, violent instincts and soothe human vices; through his patronage and actions, the hetman thus establishes balance and order - "soothing fierce bears with his melody and the power of love" (Mitis amore tenens saevos modulamine Vrfos), as Kobylieński wrote in his poem. This tapestry was undoubtedly inspired by the series commissioned in Brussels by King Sigismund II Augustus and may well have originated from the same workshops (the tapestry depicting the Paradise Bliss features nude depictions of the King and his third wife). In 1549, Emperor Charles V, who had conferred the imperial title upon Tarnowski in 1547, commissioned a bronze statue depicting himself in the guise of a nude ancient god. Created in Milan by the Italian sculptors Leone and Pompeo Leoni, the work was presented to the Emperor in Brussels in 1556 (Prado Museum, inv. E000273). Furthermore, one of the most significant depictions of Orpheus from the first half of the 16th century is that of Cosimo I de' Medici (1519-1574) in the guise of the Thracian bard: the Duke of Florence was painted nude by Agnolo Bronzino around 1537-1539, thereby symbolizing the establishment of peace and stability in Florence (Philadelphia Museum of Art, inv. 1950-86-1). The Tarnowski tapestry thus very likely served as a portrait of the hetman as well, and was presumably related to the composition found in a 1563 edition of Ovid's Metamorphoses, illustrated by Virgil Solis (1514-1562) and other artists.

Metamorphoses of a girl and a boy from Krzysztof Kobylieński's Variorvm epigrammatvm ... by circle of Łazarz Andrysowicz (Officina Lazari), 1558, Jagiellonian Library. 

Apollo contending with Pan from Krzysztof Kobylieński's Variorvm epigrammatvm ..., containing his disguised portrait, by circle of Łazarz Andrysowicz (Officina Lazari), 1558, Jagiellonian Library. 

​Hypothetical reconstruction of the painting depicting Apollo contending with Pan with disguised portrait of Krzysztof Kobylieński (ca. 1520-1565) by Titian, before 1558, lost. © Marcin Latka 

​Hypothetical reconstruction of the tapestry depicting Orpheus playing to the animals with disguised portrait of Hetman Jan Amor Tarnowski (1488-1561) by Willem de Pannemaker after desing by Michiel Coxie, ca. 1550, lost. © Marcin Latka